Chapter 3 Landforms And Life

Mountains

Landforms are the natural physical features found on the surface of the Earth. These features are shaped over extremely long periods and significantly influence the environment and the life forms that inhabit them.

Major landforms can be broadly categorized into three primary types: mountains, plateaus, and plains.

Each landform has a distinct climate, supports specific types of plants (flora) and animals (fauna), and presents different conditions for human life and activity.

Mountains are elevated landforms that rise considerably higher than the surrounding terrain. They are typically characterized by a wide base, steep slopes, and a pointed or narrow summit.

The height of mountains influences their characteristics. Some mountains at high altitudes are covered in snow year-round. At lower elevations, snow melts seasonally, contributing water to rivers. Mountains where snow never melts are described as permanently snow-capped.

Similar elevated landforms that are lower in height, have gentler slopes, and more rounded tops are called hills.

Precipitation refers to water falling from the atmosphere to the ground, including rain, snow, and hail. At higher altitudes, if temperatures are low enough, precipitation occurs as snow.

Many mountains occur together in chains called mountain ranges, which can extend for thousands of kilometres, such as the Himalayas in Asia, the Alps in Europe, and the Andes in South America.

Mountains with prominent, sharp peaks, like the Himalayas, are geologically 'younger', meaning they were formed more recently in geological history (still millions of years ago). Older mountains and hills, like the Aravalli Range, are generally lower and have more rounded shapes due to prolonged erosion. Some mountain ranges, like the Himalayas, are still undergoing upliftment and erosion processes.

Mountain Environment

Mountain slopes are often covered by specific types of forests known as montane forests. These forests typically feature conifer trees like pines, firs, spruces, and deodars, which are tall and cone-shaped with thin, pointed leaves. At higher elevations, above the treeline, the vegetation transitions to grasses, mosses, and lichens.

Mountains are rich in biodiversity. Their forests, rivers, lakes, grasslands, and caves provide habitats for a variety of animal species (fauna), including the golden eagle, peregrine falcon, Canadian lynx, snow leopard, ibex, Himalayan tahr, mountain hare, yak, grey fox, and black bear.

Many significant rivers originate in mountains, often fed by melting snow and glaciers. The Ganga, India's largest river, along with its tributaries like the Yamuna and Ghagara, originates in the Himalayas. Other rivers, like the Son, originate in ranges south of the plains.

Life In The Mountains

Life in mountainous regions presents unique challenges due to the rugged terrain and steep slopes. Traditional agriculture is difficult in most areas, limiting farming primarily to valleys.

On slopes, a technique called terrace farming is practiced, where steps are cut into the hillside to create level areas suitable for cultivation.

In many mountainous regions, herding animals is a more common occupation than farming.

Tourism is a vital source of income for mountain communities. The scenic beauty, crisp air, and opportunities for adventure sports like skiing, hiking, mountaineering, and paragliding attract visitors. Mountains are also destinations for religious pilgrimages to holy sites.

However, high volumes of visitors can strain the delicate mountain environment, making it challenging to balance tourism benefits with ecological preservation.

Mountain life can involve facing natural hazards:

• Avalanches: Sudden descent of snow, ice, and rocks.
• Landslides: Collapse of earth or rock masses down a slope.
• Flash floods: Rapid, intense flooding often caused by sudden heavy rainfall (cloudbursts).
• Extreme cold weather and heavy snowfall.

Human-made challenges, such as uncontrolled tourism, can also impact mountain environments and communities.

Despite these difficulties, people choose to live in mountains, drawn perhaps by the beauty, unique lifestyle, or cultural significance.

Mountains hold deep cultural and spiritual importance for many communities worldwide. For instance, Mount Everest is known by names like 'Chomolungma' ('Mother Goddess of the World') and 'Sagarmatha' ('Goddess of the Sky') and is considered sacred. Mount Kailash is another example, revered across multiple religions.

Plateaus

A plateau is an elevated expanse of land with a relatively flat or gently sloping surface, often featuring steep sides where it rises sharply from the surrounding lower land.

Plateaus, like mountains, can be geologically young or ancient. Their height above sea level can vary significantly, from a few hundred metres to thousands of metres.

• The Tibetan Plateau, known as the 'Roof of the World', is the highest and largest plateau globally, with an average altitude of 4,500 m.
• The Deccan Plateau in central and southern India is one of the world's oldest plateaus, formed by volcanic activity millions of years ago.

Plateaus are often referred to as "storehouses of minerals" because they are rich in mineral deposits. This makes mining a major economic activity in many plateau regions. Examples include gold and diamond mining on the East African Plateau and extensive reserves of iron, coal, and manganese in India's Chhota Nagpur Plateau.

The environment on plateaus varies. Many have rocky and less fertile soils, making agriculture challenging. However, lava plateaus often have fertile black soil suitable for farming.

Plateaus are also known for spectacular waterfalls that plunge from their steep edges. Notable examples include Victoria Falls, Hundru Falls, Jog Falls, and the Nohkalikai Falls, which drops from the Cherrapunji Plateau.

Plains

Plains are extensive areas of flat or gently undulating land, typically not rising more than 300 metres above sea level. They lack significant hills or deep valleys.

A key type of plain is the floodplain, created by rivers. As rivers flow from mountains, they erode rock and carry along fine particles of rock, sand, and silt known as sediments. When the river reaches the flatter plains, its speed decreases, and it deposits these sediments. This deposition process creates highly fertile soil.

Because of their fertility, plains are ideal for agriculture, which is a primary economic activity in these regions. They also support a diverse range of flora and fauna.

Life In The Plains

Plains have historically been favoured areas for human settlement. The fertile land and availability of water (from rivers) supported early agriculture, leading to the development of the first great civilizations in river valleys on plains.

Today, plains remain densely populated areas globally. For example, the Ganga plain in India is home to a significant portion of the country's population.

The main occupations in plains include agriculture and river fishing. A wide variety of food crops like rice, wheat, maize, barley, and millets are grown. Fibre crops such as cotton, jute, and hemp are also common in the Ganga plain.

Historically dependent on rainfall (rainfed agriculture), farming in plains increasingly relies on irrigation, using canals or groundwater pumping. While irrigation boosts production, it has contributed to the depletion of groundwater resources, posing a challenge for sustainable agriculture.

Plains also face issues like high population density and pollution.

Rivers in plains hold immense cultural value. Their sources and confluences (meeting points of rivers) are often considered sacred in various cultures, leading to numerous festivals and rituals.

The gentle slope of plains facilitates river navigation, which supports economic activities and was historically important for transportation.

Deserts

Beyond the primary categories of mountains, plateaus, and plains, other significant landforms exist, such as deserts.

Deserts are characterized as large, arid or dry regions receiving very little precipitation. They possess unique flora and fauna adapted to harsh, dry conditions.

Deserts can be either hot, like the Sahara Desert in Africa or the Thar Desert in India, or cold, such as the Gobi Desert in Asia. Antarctica is also sometimes classified as a cold desert due to its extremely low precipitation.

Despite challenging living conditions, human communities have adapted to survive in many desert environments. For instance, communities in the Thar Desert have rich cultural traditions influenced by their desert surroundings.

The ability of humans to adapt and thrive across diverse landforms, from mountains to plains to deserts, demonstrates remarkable adaptability and resilience.

Ancient Tamil Sangam poetry classified landscapes into five types known as Tiṇais, each associated with specific characteristics, lifestyles, and cultural elements. This classification reflects a deep understanding of the connection between human life and the natural environment.